backbone.js

//     Backbone.js 0.5.3
//     (c) 2010 Jeremy Ashkenas, DocumentCloud Inc.
//     Backbone may be freely distributed under the MIT license.
//     For all details and documentation:
//     http://documentcloud.github.com/backbone

(function(){

  // Initial Setup
  // -------------

  // Save a reference to the global object.
  var root = this;

  // Save the previous value of the `Backbone` variable.
  var previousBackbone = root.Backbone;

  // The top-level namespace. All public Backbone classes and modules will
  // be attached to this. Exported for both CommonJS and the browser.
  var Backbone;
  if (typeof exports !== 'undefined') {
    Backbone = exports;
  } else {
    Backbone = root.Backbone = {};
  }

  // Current version of the library. Keep in sync with `package.json`.
  Backbone.VERSION = '0.5.3';

  // Require Underscore, if we're on the server, and it's not already present.
  var _ = root._;
  if (!_ && (typeof require !== 'undefined')) _ = require('underscore')._;

  // For Backbone's purposes, jQuery, Zepto, or Ender owns the `$` variable.
  var $ = root.jQuery || root.Zepto || root.ender;

  // Runs Backbone.js in *noConflict* mode, returning the `Backbone` variable
  // to its previous owner. Returns a reference to this Backbone object.
  Backbone.noConflict = function() {
    root.Backbone = previousBackbone;
    return this;
  };

  // Turn on `emulateHTTP` to support legacy HTTP servers. Setting this option will
  // fake `"PUT"` and `"DELETE"` requests via the `_method` parameter and set a
  // `X-Http-Method-Override` header.
  Backbone.emulateHTTP = false;

  // Turn on `emulateJSON` to support legacy servers that can't deal with direct
  // `application/json` requests ... will encode the body as
  // `application/x-www-form-urlencoded` instead and will send the model in a
  // form param named `model`.
  Backbone.emulateJSON = false;

  // Backbone.Events
  // -----------------

  // A module that can be mixed in to *any object* in order to provide it with
  // custom events. You may `bind` or `unbind` a callback function to an event;
  // `trigger`-ing an event fires all callbacks in succession.
  //
  //     var object = {};
  //     _.extend(object, Backbone.Events);
  //     object.bind('expand', function(){ alert('expanded'); });
  //     object.trigger('expand');
  //
  Backbone.Events = {

    // Bind an event, specified by a string name, `ev`, to a `callback` function.
    // Passing `"all"` will bind the callback to all events fired.
    bind : function(ev, callback, context) {
      var calls = this._callbacks || (this._callbacks = {});
      var list  = calls[ev] || (calls[ev] = []);
      list.push([callback, context]);  //context refers to what 'this' will be when callback is called
      return this;  // return current context (so methods can be chained?)
    },

    // Remove one or many callbacks. If `callback` is null, removes all
    // callbacks for the event. If `ev` is null, removes all bound callbacks
    // for all events.
    unbind : function(ev, callback) {
      var calls;
      if (!ev) {
        this._callbacks = {};
      } else if (calls = this._callbacks) { //map callbacks into 'calls'.  Do nothing else if they're empty.
        if (!callback) { //unbind all callbacks for specified event when callback is null
          calls[ev] = [];
        } else {
          var list = calls[ev];
          if (!list) return this;
          for (var i = 0, l = list.length; i < l; i++) {
            if (list[i] && callback === list[i][0]) {
              list[i] = null;  //null out entry in callback list, will be removed when trigger() is called (why isn't it just removed here?)
              break;  //break from for loop.  Unbind deletes only the first callback match.
            }
          }
        }
      }
      return this;  //return context, for chainability?
    },

    // Trigger an event, firing all bound callbacks. Callbacks are passed the
    // same arguments as `trigger` is, apart from the event name.
    // Listening for `"all"` passes the true event name as the first argument.
    trigger : function(eventName) {
      var list, calls, ev, callback, args;
      var both = 2;
      if (!(calls = this._callbacks)) return this; // load callback list and return if it's empty
      while (both--) { //run this loop twice. Trigger callbacks for eventName and then 'all'
        ev = both ? eventName : 'all';
        if (list = calls[ev]) {
          for (var i = 0, l = list.length; i < l; i++) {
            if (!(callback = list[i])) { //evals to true only when list[i] is false/null
              list.splice(i, 1); i--; l--; //remove a nulled entry (unbind() nulls entries in callback list)
            } else {
              args = both ? Array.prototype.slice.call(arguments, 1) : arguments;
              callback[0].apply(callback[1] || this, args); // call callback function with appropriate args
            }
          }
        }
      }
      return this;  //return current context, for chainability?
    }

  };

  // Backbone.Model
  // --------------

  // Create a new model, with defined attributes. A client id (`cid`)
  // is automatically generated and assigned for you.
  Backbone.Model = function(attributes, options) {
    var defaults;
    attributes || (attributes = {});
    if (defaults = this.defaults) {
      if (_.isFunction(defaults)) defaults = defaults.call(this); // defaults can be a JSON object or a function
      attributes = _.extend({}, defaults, attributes);
    }
    this.attributes = {}; // Backbone.Model().attributes = {}
    this._escapedAttributes = {};
    this.cid = _.uniqueId('c');
    this.set(attributes, {silent : true}); // set: Backbone.Model method (line 193).  silent: true disables validations
    this._changed = false;
    this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
    if (options && options.collection) this.collection = options.collection;
    this.initialize(attributes, options); // to be defined for each model
  };

  // Attach all inheritable methods to the Model prototype.
  _.extend(Backbone.Model.prototype, Backbone.Events, {

    // A snapshot of the model's previous attributes, taken immediately
    // after the last `"change"` event was fired.
    _previousAttributes : null,

    // Has the item been changed since the last `"change"` event?
    _changed : false,

    // The default name for the JSON `id` attribute is `"id"`. MongoDB and
    // CouchDB users may want to set this to `"_id"`.
    idAttribute : 'id',

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize : function(){}, // initialize(attributes, options) called when a new instance is created

    // Return a copy of the model's `attributes` object.
    toJSON : function() {
      return _.clone(this.attributes);
    },

    // Get the value of an attribute.
    get : function(attr) {
      return this.attributes[attr];
    },

    // Get the HTML-escaped value of an attribute.
    escape : function(attr) {
      var html;
      if (html = this._escapedAttributes[attr]) return html; // if previously set, just fetch and return
      var val = this.attributes[attr];
      return this._escapedAttributes[attr] = escapeHTML(val == null ? '' : '' + val); // coerce val to a string, escape html and assign to _escapedAttributes
    },

    // Returns `true` if the attribute contains a value that is not null
    // or undefined.
    has : function(attr) {
      return this.attributes[attr] != null;
    },

    // Set a hash of model attributes on the object, firing `"change"` unless you
    // choose to silence it.
    set : function(attrs, options) {

      // Extract attributes and options.
      options || (options = {});
      if (!attrs) return this;
      if (attrs.attributes) attrs = attrs.attributes;
      var now = this.attributes, escaped = this._escapedAttributes;

      // Run validation.
      if (!options.silent && this.validate && !this._performValidation(attrs, options)) return false;

      // Check for changes of `id`.
      if (this.idAttribute in attrs) this.id = attrs[this.idAttribute]; // make changes to id first: one change in many attributes could trigger change events with different ids(?)

      // We're about to start triggering change events.
      var alreadyChanging = this._changing;
      this._changing = true;

      // Update attributes.
      for (var attr in attrs) {
        var val = attrs[attr];
        if (!_.isEqual(now[attr], val)) { //underscore.js's isEqual is an optimized deep comparison (== is true only for references to same object)
          now[attr] = val;
          delete escaped[attr]; //delete caching for escapedAttribute
          this._changed = true;
          if (!options.silent) this.trigger('change:' + attr, this, val, options); //silent affects event triggering and validation
        }
      }

      // Fire the `"change"` event, if the model has been changed.
      if (!alreadyChanging && !options.silent && this._changed) this.change(options);
      this._changing = false;
      return this;
    },

    // Remove an attribute from the model, firing `"change"` unless you choose
    // to silence it. `unset` is a noop if the attribute doesn't exist.
    unset : function(attr, options) {
      if (!(attr in this.attributes)) return this;
      options || (options = {});
      var value = this.attributes[attr]; // ?: value appears to be unused (?)

      // Run validation. // ?: why run validation when removing an attribute? --because one removed attribute could invalidate an instance of the model
      var validObj = {};
      validObj[attr] = void 0; //void 0 is equivalent to undefined
      if (!options.silent && this.validate && !this._performValidation(validObj, options)) return false; // ?: why performValidation on validObj? seems like a hash with a single undefined attribute. Perhaps validObj should be a copy of value

      // Remove the attribute.
      delete this.attributes[attr];
      delete this._escapedAttributes[attr];
      if (attr == this.idAttribute) delete this.id;
      this._changed = true;
      if (!options.silent) {
        this.trigger('change:' + attr, this, void 0, options);
        this.change(options);
      }
      return this;
    },

    // Clear all attributes on the model, firing `"change"` unless you choose
    // to silence it.
    clear : function(options) {
      options || (options = {});
      var attr;
      var old = this.attributes;

      // Run validation. // ?: why run validation when removing a model? --model isn't removed, its attributes are just being cleared.
      var validObj = {};
      for (attr in old) validObj[attr] = void 0; //create a 'copy' of the object with all fields undefined
      if (!options.silent && this.validate && !this._performValidation(validObj, options)) return false; //this.validate carries the validations, this gets passed to _performValidation

      this.attributes = {};
      this._escapedAttributes = {};
      this._changed = true;
      if (!options.silent) { //trigger change event for all attributes
        for (attr in old) {
          this.trigger('change:' + attr, this, void 0, options);
        }
        this.change(options);
      }
      return this;
    },

    // Fetch the model from the server. If the server's representation of the
    // model differs from its current attributes, they will be overriden,
    // triggering a `"change"` event.
    fetch : function(options) {
      options || (options = {});
      var model = this;
      var success = options.success;  //the callback function for success
      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) { //remap options.success to be passed as an arg to this.sync or Backbone.sync; options.success is called if the AJAX request is successful
        if (!model.set(model.parse(resp, xhr), options)) return false; //parse the response, try to set the attributes.  Only returns false if validation(s) fail.  A change event will be triggered by set() if applicable
        if (success) success(model, resp); //success callback is called so long as validation didn't fail and success callback defined
      };
      options.error = wrapError(options.error, model, options);
      return (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, 'read', this, options); //make actual AJAX request
    },

    // Set a hash of model attributes, and sync the model to the server.
    // If the server returns an attributes hash that differs, the model's
    // state will be `set` again.
    save : function(attrs, options) {
      options || (options = {});
      if (attrs && !this.set(attrs, options)) return false;  //set attributes (and run validations)
      var model = this;  // store model in a variable, as 'this' will change when AJAX request sent (options.success() )
      var success = options.success; // store success callback so options.success can be remapped
      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) { // define success callback for XMLHttpRequest. Gets passed into jQuery.ajax() method: only called when request was successful (no errors from server or with data)
        if (!model.set(model.parse(resp, xhr), options)) return false; // try to parse/set successful response, return false if validation fails
        if (success) success(model, resp, xhr);
      };
      options.error = wrapError(options.error, model, options);
      var method = this.isNew() ? 'create' : 'update';
      return (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, method, this, options); // AJAX call
    },

    // Destroy this model on the server if it was already persisted. Upon success, the model is removed
    // from its collection, if it has one.
    destroy : function(options) {
      options || (options = {});
      if (this.isNew()) return this.trigger('destroy', this, this.collection, options); // object hasn't been saved on server
      var model = this;
      var success = options.success;
      options.success = function(resp) {
        model.trigger('destroy', model, model.collection, options); // trigger destroy event *after* server responds with success.  ?: unsure how destroy event triggers local deletion
        if (success) success(model, resp);
      };
      options.error = wrapError(options.error, model, options);
      return (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, 'delete', this, options);
    },

    // Default URL for the model's representation on the server -- if you're
    // using Backbone's restful methods, override this to change the endpoint
    // that will be called.
    url : function() {
      var base = getUrl(this.collection) || this.urlRoot || urlError();
      if (this.isNew()) return base;
      return base + (base.charAt(base.length - 1) == '/' ? '' : '/') + encodeURIComponent(this.id);
    },

    // **parse** converts a response into the hash of attributes to be `set` on
    // the model. The default implementation is just to pass the response along.
    parse : function(resp, xhr) {
      return resp;
    },

    // Create a new model with identical attributes to this one.
    clone : function() {
      return new this.constructor(this);
    },

    // A model is new if it has never been saved to the server, and lacks an id.
    isNew : function() {
      return this.id == null;
    },

    // Call this method to manually fire a `change` event for this model.
    // Calling this will cause all objects observing the model to update.
    change : function(options) {
      this.trigger('change', this, options);
      this._previousAttributes = _.clone(this.attributes);
      this._changed = false;
    },

    // Determine if the model has changed since the last `"change"` event.
    // If you specify an attribute name, determine if that attribute has changed.
    hasChanged : function(attr) {
      if (attr) return this._previousAttributes[attr] != this.attributes[attr];
      return this._changed;
    },

    // Return an object containing all the attributes that have changed, or false
    // if there are no changed attributes. Useful for determining what parts of a
    // view need to be updated and/or what attributes need to be persisted to
    // the server.
    changedAttributes : function(now) {
      now || (now = this.attributes);
      var old = this._previousAttributes;
      var changed = false;
      for (var attr in now) {
        if (!_.isEqual(old[attr], now[attr])) {
          changed = changed || {};
          changed[attr] = now[attr];
        }
      }
      return changed;
    },

    // Get the previous value of an attribute, recorded at the time the last
    // `"change"` event was fired.
    previous : function(attr) {
      if (!attr || !this._previousAttributes) return null;
      return this._previousAttributes[attr];
    },

    // Get all of the attributes of the model at the time of the previous
    // `"change"` event.
    previousAttributes : function() {
      return _.clone(this._previousAttributes);
    },

    // Run validation against a set of incoming attributes, returning `true`
    // if all is well. If a specific `error` callback has been passed,
    // call that instead of firing the general `"error"` event.
    _performValidation : function(attrs, options) {
      var error = this.validate(attrs);
      if (error) {
        if (options.error) {
          options.error(this, error, options);
        } else {
          this.trigger('error', this, error, options);
        }
        return false;
      }
      return true;
    }

  });

  // Backbone.Collection
  // -------------------

  // Provides a standard collection class for our sets of models, ordered
  // or unordered. If a `comparator` is specified, the Collection will maintain
  // its models in sort order, as they're added and removed.
  Backbone.Collection = function(models, options) {
    options || (options = {});
    if (options.comparator) this.comparator = options.comparator;
    _.bindAll(this, '_onModelEvent', '_removeReference');
    this._reset(); // set collection to be empty and have length zero
    if (models) this.reset(models, {silent: true});
    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
  };

  // Define the Collection's inheritable methods.
  _.extend(Backbone.Collection.prototype, Backbone.Events, {

    // The default model for a collection is just a **Backbone.Model**.
    // This should be overridden in most cases.
    model : Backbone.Model,

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize : function(){},

    // The JSON representation of a Collection is an array of the
    // models' attributes.
    toJSON : function() {
      return this.map(function(model){ return model.toJSON(); });
    },

    // Add a model, or list of models to the set. Pass **silent** to avoid
    // firing the `added` event for every new model.
    add : function(models, options) {  // use silent for bulk adds to improve performance
      if (_.isArray(models)) {
        for (var i = 0, l = models.length; i < l; i++) {
          this._add(models[i], options);  // _add: internal implementation of collection adding.  See line 581
        }
      } else {
        this._add(models, options);
      }
      return this;
    },

    // Remove a model, or a list of models from the set. Pass silent to avoid
    // firing the `removed` event for every model removed.
    remove : function(models, options) {
      if (_.isArray(models)) {
        for (var i = 0, l = models.length; i < l; i++) {
          this._remove(models[i], options);  // _remove: see line 601
        }
      } else {
        this._remove(models, options);
      }
      return this;
    },

    // Get a model from the set by id.
    get : function(id) {
      if (id == null) return null;
      return this._byId[id.id != null ? id.id : id];  // allow for id (fixednum) param and {id:id} (hash) param
    },

    // Get a model from the set by client id.
    getByCid : function(cid) {
      return cid && this._byCid[cid.cid || cid]; // allow for fixednum or hash param.  _byId and _byCid are hashes to index Model objects. Difference between cid and id: id is assigned by the server and can be undefined.  CID is defined client side and can be defined when a model hasn't yet saved to the server.
    },

    // Get the model at the given index.
    at: function(index) {
      return this.models[index];
    },

    // Force the collection to re-sort itself. You don't need to call this under normal
    // circumstances, as the set will maintain sort order as each item is added.
    sort : function(options) {
      options || (options = {});
      if (!this.comparator) throw new Error('Cannot sort a set without a comparator');
      this.models = this.sortBy(this.comparator);
      if (!options.silent) this.trigger('reset', this, options);
      return this;
    },

    // Pluck an attribute from each model in the collection.
    pluck : function(attr) {
      return _.map(this.models, function(model){ return model.get(attr); });
    },

    // When you have more items than you want to add or remove individually,
    // you can reset the entire set with a new list of models, without firing
    // any `added` or `removed` events. Fires `reset` when finished.
    reset : function(models, options) {
      models  || (models = []);  // no models provided => empty the collection
      options || (options = {});
      this.each(this._removeReference);
      this._reset();
      this.add(models, {silent: true});  // add the models without triggering an 'add' event
      if (!options.silent) this.trigger('reset', this, options); // trigger 'reset' event unless called with silent:true
      return this;
    },

    // Fetch the default set of models for this collection, resetting the
    // collection when they arrive. If `add: true` is passed, appends the
    // models to the collection instead of resetting.
    fetch : function(options) {
      options || (options = {});
      var collection = this;
      var success = options.success;
      options.success = function(resp, status, xhr) {
        collection[options.add ? 'add' : 'reset'](collection.parse(resp, xhr), options);
        if (success) success(collection, resp);
      };
      options.error = wrapError(options.error, collection, options);
      return (this.sync || Backbone.sync).call(this, 'read', this, options);
    },

    // Create a new instance of a model in this collection. After the model
    // has been created on the server, it will be added to the collection.
    // Returns the model, or 'false' if validation on a new model fails.
    create : function(model, options) { // http://documentcloud.github.com/backbone/#Collection-create is useful here.  model should be an attributes hash or an unsaved model object
      var coll = this;
      options || (options = {});
      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);  // assign model to this collection (build a model if given an attributes hash)
      if (!model) return false;                    // prepareModel will return false if validations fail
      var success = options.success;
      options.success = function(nextModel, resp, xhr) { //success callback function
        coll.add(nextModel, options);              // add model to collection
        if (success) success(nextModel, resp, xhr);  //call a callback function if defined
      };
      model.save(null, options);
      return model;
    },

    // **parse** converts a response into a list of models to be added to the
    // collection. The default implementation is just to pass it through.
    parse : function(resp, xhr) {
      return resp;            // redefined to change how Backbone and server communicate.  Shouldn't be necessary for Rails
    },

    // Proxy to _'s chain. Can't be proxied the same way the rest of the
    // underscore methods are proxied because it relies on the underscore
    // constructor.
    chain: function () { // Backbone extends all Underscore.js functions to Collection objects.  Chain is a special case that has to be defined here
      return _(this.models).chain();
    },

    // Reset all internal state. Called when the collection is reset.
    _reset : function(options) {
      this.length = 0;
      this.models = [];
      this._byId  = {};
      this._byCid = {};
    },

    // Prepare a model to be added to this collection
    _prepareModel: function(model, options) {
      if (!(model instanceof Backbone.Model)) { // if model isn't a Model instance, model is assumed to be an attributes hash
        var attrs = model;
        model = new this.model(attrs, {collection: this});  // line 132: set default attributes, assign a Cid
        if (model.validate && !model._performValidation(attrs, options)) model = false;
      } else if (!model.collection) { // model is a Model instance, but will NOT be remapped if it belongs to another collection
        model.collection = this;
      }
      return model;
    },

    // Internal implementation of adding a single model to the set, updating
    // hash indexes for `id` and `cid` lookups.
    // Returns the model, or 'false' if validation on a new model fails.
    _add : function(model, options) {
      options || (options = {});
      model = this._prepareModel(model, options);   // set default attributes, assign a Cid, run validations
      if (!model) return false;                     // verify validations passed in _prepareModel
      var already = this.getByCid(model);
      if (already) throw new Error(["Can't add the same model to a set twice", already.id]);
      this._byId[model.id] = model;                 // id can be passed in as an attribute but would otherwise be set by the server on save
      this._byCid[model.cid] = model;
      var index = options.at != null ? options.at :
                  this.comparator ? this.sortedIndex(model, this.comparator) :
                  this.length;
      this.models.splice(index, 0, model);          // insert model to have index 'index'
      model.bind('all', this._onModelEvent);
      this.length++;
      if (!options.silent) model.trigger('add', model, this, options);
      return model;
    },

    // Internal implementation of removing a single model from the set, updating
    // hash indexes for `id` and `cid` lookups.
    _remove : function(model, options) {
      options || (options = {});
      model = this.getByCid(model) || this.get(model);
      if (!model) return null;
      delete this._byId[model.id];
      delete this._byCid[model.cid];
      this.models.splice(this.indexOf(model), 1);
      this.length--;
      if (!options.silent) model.trigger('remove', model, this, options);
      this._removeReference(model);
      return model;
    },

    // Internal method to remove a model's ties to a collection.
    _removeReference : function(model) {
      if (this == model.collection) {
        delete model.collection;
      }
      model.unbind('all', this._onModelEvent);
    },

    // Internal method called every time a model in the set fires an event.
    // Sets need to update their indexes when models change ids. All other
    // events simply proxy through. "add" and "remove" events that originate
    // in other collections are ignored.
    _onModelEvent : function(ev, model, collection, options) {
      if ((ev == 'add' || ev == 'remove') && collection != this) return;
      if (ev == 'destroy') {
        this._remove(model, options);
      }
      if (model && ev === 'change:' + model.idAttribute) {
        delete this._byId[model.previous(model.idAttribute)];
        this._byId[model.id] = model;
      }
      this.trigger.apply(this, arguments);
    }

  });

  // Underscore methods that we want to implement on the Collection.
  var methods = ['forEach', 'each', 'map', 'reduce', 'reduceRight', 'find', 'detect',
    'filter', 'select', 'reject', 'every', 'all', 'some', 'any', 'include',
    'contains', 'invoke', 'max', 'min', 'sortBy', 'sortedIndex', 'toArray', 'size',
    'first', 'rest', 'last', 'without', 'indexOf', 'lastIndexOf', 'isEmpty', 'groupBy'];

  // Mix in each Underscore method as a proxy to `Collection#models`.
  _.each(methods, function(method) {
    Backbone.Collection.prototype[method] = function() {
      return _[method].apply(_, [this.models].concat(_.toArray(arguments)));
    };
  });

  // Backbone.Router
  // -------------------

  // Routers map faux-URLs to actions, and fire events when routes are
  // matched. Creating a new one sets its `routes` hash, if not set statically.
  Backbone.Router = function(options) {
    options || (options = {});
    if (options.routes) this.routes = options.routes;
    this._bindRoutes();
    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
  };

  // Cached regular expressions for matching named param parts and splatted
  // parts of route strings.
  var namedParam    = /:([\w\d]+)/g;
  var splatParam    = /\*([\w\d]+)/g;
  var escapeRegExp  = /[-[\]{}()+?.,\\^$|#\s]/g;

  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.Router** properties and methods.
  _.extend(Backbone.Router.prototype, Backbone.Events, {

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize : function(){},

    // Manually bind a single named route to a callback. For example:
    //
    //     this.route('search/:query/p:num', 'search', function(query, num) {
    //       ...
    //     });
    //
    route : function(route, name, callback) {
      Backbone.history || (Backbone.history = new Backbone.History);
      if (!_.isRegExp(route)) route = this._routeToRegExp(route);
      Backbone.history.route(route, _.bind(function(fragment) {
        var args = this._extractParameters(route, fragment);
        callback.apply(this, args);
        this.trigger.apply(this, ['route:' + name].concat(args));
      }, this));
    },

    // Simple proxy to `Backbone.history` to save a fragment into the history.
    navigate : function(fragment, triggerRoute) {
      Backbone.history.navigate(fragment, triggerRoute);
    },

    // Bind all defined routes to `Backbone.history`. We have to reverse the
    // order of the routes here to support behavior where the most general
    // routes can be defined at the bottom of the route map.
    _bindRoutes : function() {
      if (!this.routes) return;
      var routes = [];
      for (var route in this.routes) {
        routes.unshift([route, this.routes[route]]);
      }
      for (var i = 0, l = routes.length; i < l; i++) {
        this.route(routes[i][0], routes[i][1], this[routes[i][1]]);
      }
    },

    // Convert a route string into a regular expression, suitable for matching
    // against the current location hash.
    _routeToRegExp : function(route) {
      route = route.replace(escapeRegExp, "\\$&")
                   .replace(namedParam, "([^\/]*)")
                   .replace(splatParam, "(.*?)");
      return new RegExp('^' + route + '$');
    },

    // Given a route, and a URL fragment that it matches, return the array of
    // extracted parameters.
    _extractParameters : function(route, fragment) {
      return route.exec(fragment).slice(1);
    }

  });

  // Backbone.History
  // ----------------

  // Handles cross-browser history management, based on URL fragments. If the
  // browser does not support `onhashchange`, falls back to polling.
  Backbone.History = function() {
    this.handlers = [];
    _.bindAll(this, 'checkUrl');
  };

  // Cached regex for cleaning hashes.
  var hashStrip = /^#*/;

  // Cached regex for detecting MSIE.
  var isExplorer = /msie [\w.]+/;

  // Has the history handling already been started?
  var historyStarted = false;

  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.History** properties and methods.
  _.extend(Backbone.History.prototype, {

    // The default interval to poll for hash changes, if necessary, is
    // twenty times a second.
    interval: 50,

    // Get the cross-browser normalized URL fragment, either from the URL,
    // the hash, or the override.
    getFragment : function(fragment, forcePushState) {
      if (fragment == null) {
        if (this._hasPushState || forcePushState) {
          fragment = window.location.pathname;
          var search = window.location.search;
          if (search) fragment += search;
        } else {
          fragment = window.location.hash;
        }
      }
      fragment = decodeURIComponent(fragment.replace(hashStrip, ''));
      if (!fragment.indexOf(this.options.root)) fragment = fragment.substr(this.options.root.length);
      return fragment;
    },

    // Start the hash change handling, returning `true` if the current URL matches
    // an existing route, and `false` otherwise.
    start : function(options) {

      // Figure out the initial configuration. Do we need an iframe?
      // Is pushState desired ... is it available?
      if (historyStarted) throw new Error("Backbone.history has already been started");
      this.options          = _.extend({}, {root: '/'}, this.options, options);
      this._wantsPushState  = !!this.options.pushState;
      this._hasPushState    = !!(this.options.pushState && window.history && window.history.pushState);
      var fragment          = this.getFragment();
      var docMode           = document.documentMode;
      var oldIE             = (isExplorer.exec(navigator.userAgent.toLowerCase()) && (!docMode || docMode <= 7));
      if (oldIE) {
        this.iframe = $('<iframe src="javascript:0" tabindex="-1" />').hide().appendTo('body')[0].contentWindow;
        this.navigate(fragment);
      }

      // Depending on whether we're using pushState or hashes, and whether
      // 'onhashchange' is supported, determine how we check the URL state.
      if (this._hasPushState) {
        $(window).bind('popstate', this.checkUrl);
      } else if ('onhashchange' in window && !oldIE) {
        $(window).bind('hashchange', this.checkUrl);
      } else {
        setInterval(this.checkUrl, this.interval);
      }

      // Determine if we need to change the base url, for a pushState link
      // opened by a non-pushState browser.
      this.fragment = fragment;
      historyStarted = true;
      var loc = window.location;
      var atRoot  = loc.pathname == this.options.root;
      if (this._wantsPushState && !this._hasPushState && !atRoot) {
        this.fragment = this.getFragment(null, true);
        window.location.replace(this.options.root + '#' + this.fragment);
        // Return immediately as browser will do redirect to new url
        return true;
      } else if (this._wantsPushState && this._hasPushState && atRoot && loc.hash) {
        this.fragment = loc.hash.replace(hashStrip, '');
        window.history.replaceState({}, document.title, loc.protocol + '//' + loc.host + this.options.root + this.fragment);
      }

      if (!this.options.silent) {
        return this.loadUrl();
      }
    },

    // Add a route to be tested when the fragment changes. Routes added later may
    // override previous routes.
    route : function(route, callback) {
      this.handlers.unshift({route : route, callback : callback});
    },

    // Checks the current URL to see if it has changed, and if it has,
    // calls `loadUrl`, normalizing across the hidden iframe.
    checkUrl : function(e) {
      var current = this.getFragment();
      if (current == this.fragment && this.iframe) current = this.getFragment(this.iframe.location.hash);
      if (current == this.fragment || current == decodeURIComponent(this.fragment)) return false;
      if (this.iframe) this.navigate(current);
      this.loadUrl() || this.loadUrl(window.location.hash);
    },

    // Attempt to load the current URL fragment. If a route succeeds with a
    // match, returns `true`. If no defined routes matches the fragment,
    // returns `false`.
    loadUrl : function(fragmentOverride) {
      var fragment = this.fragment = this.getFragment(fragmentOverride);
      var matched = _.any(this.handlers, function(handler) {
        if (handler.route.test(fragment)) {
          handler.callback(fragment);
          return true;
        }
      });
      return matched;
    },

    // Save a fragment into the hash history. You are responsible for properly
    // URL-encoding the fragment in advance. This does not trigger
    // a `hashchange` event.
    navigate : function(fragment, triggerRoute) {
      var frag = (fragment || '').replace(hashStrip, '');
      if (this.fragment == frag || this.fragment == decodeURIComponent(frag)) return;
      if (this._hasPushState) {
        var loc = window.location;
        if (frag.indexOf(this.options.root) != 0) frag = this.options.root + frag;
        this.fragment = frag;
        window.history.pushState({}, document.title, loc.protocol + '//' + loc.host + frag);
      } else {
        window.location.hash = this.fragment = frag;
        if (this.iframe && (frag != this.getFragment(this.iframe.location.hash))) {
          this.iframe.document.open().close();
          this.iframe.location.hash = frag;
        }
      }
      if (triggerRoute) this.loadUrl(fragment);
    }

  });

  // Backbone.View
  // -------------

  // Creating a Backbone.View creates its initial element outside of the DOM,
  // if an existing element is not provided...
  Backbone.View = function(options) {
    this.cid = _.uniqueId('view');
    this._configure(options || {});
    this._ensureElement();
    this.delegateEvents();
    this.initialize.apply(this, arguments);
  };

  // Element lookup, scoped to DOM elements within the current view.
  // This should be prefered to global lookups, if you're dealing with
  // a specific view.
  var selectorDelegate = function(selector) {
    return $(selector, this.el);
  };

  // Cached regex to split keys for `delegate`.
  var eventSplitter = /^(\S+)\s*(.*)$/;

  // List of view options to be merged as properties.
  var viewOptions = ['model', 'collection', 'el', 'id', 'attributes', 'className', 'tagName'];

  // Set up all inheritable **Backbone.View** properties and methods.
  _.extend(Backbone.View.prototype, Backbone.Events, {  // _.extend(destination, *sources)

    // The default `tagName` of a View's element is `"div"`.
    tagName : 'div',

    // Attach the `selectorDelegate` function as the `$` property.
    $       : selectorDelegate,

    // Initialize is an empty function by default. Override it with your own
    // initialization logic.
    initialize : function(){},

    // **render** is the core function that your view should override, in order
    // to populate its element (`this.el`), with the appropriate HTML. The
    // convention is for **render** to always return `this`.
    render : function() {
      return this;
    },

    // Remove this view from the DOM. Note that the view isn't present in the
    // DOM by default, so calling this method may be a no-op.
    remove : function() {
      $(this.el).remove();
      return this;
    },

    // For small amounts of DOM Elements, where a full-blown template isn't
    // needed, use **make** to manufacture elements, one at a time.
    //
    //     var el = this.make('li', {'class': 'row'}, this.model.escape('title'));
    //
    make : function(tagName, attributes, content) {
      var el = document.createElement(tagName);
      if (attributes) $(el).attr(attributes);
      if (content) $(el).html(content);
      return el;
    },

    // Set callbacks, where `this.events` is a hash of
    //
    // *{"event selector": "callback"}*
    //
    //     {
    //       'mousedown .title':  'edit',
    //       'click .button':     'save'
    //     }
    //
    // pairs. Callbacks will be bound to the view, with `this` set properly.
    // Uses event delegation for efficiency.
    // Omitting the selector binds the event to `this.el`.
    // This only works for delegate-able events: not `focus`, `blur`, and
    // not `change`, `submit`, and `reset` in Internet Explorer.
    delegateEvents : function(events) {
      if (!(events || (events = this.events))) return;
      if (_.isFunction(events)) events = events.call(this);
      this.undelegateEvents();
      for (var key in events) {
        var method = this[events[key]];
        if (!method) throw new Error('Event "' + events[key] + '" does not exist');
        var match = key.match(eventSplitter);
        var eventName = match[1], selector = match[2];
        method = _.bind(method, this);
        eventName += '.delegateEvents' + this.cid;
        if (selector === '') {
          $(this.el).bind(eventName, method);
        } else {
          $(this.el).delegate(selector, eventName, method);
        }
      }
    },

    // Clears all callbacks previously bound to the view with `delegateEvents`.
    undelegateEvents: function() {
      $(this.el).unbind('.delegateEvents' + this.cid);
    },

    // Performs the initial configuration of a View with a set of options.
    // Keys with special meaning *(model, collection, id, className)*, are
    // attached directly to the view.
    _configure : function(options) {
      if (this.options) options = _.extend({}, this.options, options);
      for (var i = 0, l = viewOptions.length; i < l; i++) {
        var attr = viewOptions[i];
        if (options[attr]) this[attr] = options[attr];
      }
      this.options = options;
    },

    // Ensure that the View has a DOM element to render into.
    // If `this.el` is a string, pass it through `$()`, take the first
    // matching element, and re-assign it to `el`. Otherwise, create
    // an element from the `id`, `className` and `tagName` properties.
    _ensureElement : function() {
      if (!this.el) {
        var attrs = this.attributes || {};
        if (this.id) attrs.id = this.id;
        if (this.className) attrs['class'] = this.className;
        this.el = this.make(this.tagName, attrs);
      } else if (_.isString(this.el)) {
        this.el = $(this.el).get(0);
      }
    }

  });

  // The self-propagating extend function that Backbone classes use.
  var extend = function (protoProps, classProps) {
    var child = inherits(this, protoProps, classProps);
    child.extend = this.extend;
    return child;
  };

  // Set up inheritance for the model, collection, and view.
  Backbone.Model.extend = Backbone.Collection.extend =
    Backbone.Router.extend = Backbone.View.extend = extend;

  // Map from CRUD to HTTP for our default `Backbone.sync` implementation.
  var methodMap = {
    'create': 'POST',
    'update': 'PUT',
    'delete': 'DELETE',
    'read'  : 'GET'
  };

  // Backbone.sync
  // -------------

  // Override this function to change the manner in which Backbone persists
  // models to the server. You will be passed the type of request, and the
  // model in question. By default, makes a RESTful Ajax request
  // to the model's `url()`. Some possible customizations could be:
  //
  // * Use `setTimeout` to batch rapid-fire updates into a single request.
  // * Send up the models as XML instead of JSON.
  // * Persist models via WebSockets instead of Ajax.
  //
  // Turn on `Backbone.emulateHTTP` in order to send `PUT` and `DELETE` requests
  // as `POST`, with a `_method` parameter containing the true HTTP method,
  // as well as all requests with the body as `application/x-www-form-urlencoded` instead of
  // `application/json` with the model in a param named `model`.
  // Useful when interfacing with server-side languages like **PHP** that make
  // it difficult to read the body of `PUT` requests.
  Backbone.sync = function(method, model, options) {
    var type = methodMap[method];

    // Default JSON-request options.
    var params = _.extend({
      type:         type,
      dataType:     'json'
    }, options);

    // Ensure that we have a URL.
    if (!params.url) {
      params.url = getUrl(model) || urlError();
    }

    // Ensure that we have the appropriate request data.
    if (!params.data && model && (method == 'create' || method == 'update')) {
      params.contentType = 'application/json';
      params.data = JSON.stringify(model.toJSON());
    }

    // For older servers, emulate JSON by encoding the request into an HTML-form.
    if (Backbone.emulateJSON) {
      params.contentType = 'application/x-www-form-urlencoded';
      params.data        = params.data ? {model : params.data} : {};
    }

    // For older servers, emulate HTTP by mimicking the HTTP method with `_method`
    // And an `X-HTTP-Method-Override` header.
    if (Backbone.emulateHTTP) {
      if (type === 'PUT' || type === 'DELETE') {
        if (Backbone.emulateJSON) params.data._method = type;
        params.type = 'POST';
        params.beforeSend = function(xhr) {
          xhr.setRequestHeader('X-HTTP-Method-Override', type);
        };
      }
    }

    // Don't process data on a non-GET request.
    if (params.type !== 'GET' && !Backbone.emulateJSON) {
      params.processData = false;
    }

    // Make the request.
    return $.ajax(params);
  };

  // Helpers
  // -------

  // Shared empty constructor function to aid in prototype-chain creation.
  var ctor = function(){};

  // Helper function to correctly set up the prototype chain, for subclasses.
  // Similar to `goog.inherits`, but uses a hash of prototype properties and
  // class properties to be extended.
  var inherits = function(parent, protoProps, staticProps) {
    var child;

    // The constructor function for the new subclass is either defined by you
    // (the "constructor" property in your `extend` definition), or defaulted
    // by us to simply call `super()`.
    if (protoProps && protoProps.hasOwnProperty('constructor')) {
      child = protoProps.constructor;
    } else {
      child = function(){ return parent.apply(this, arguments); };
    }

    // Inherit class (static) properties from parent.
    _.extend(child, parent);

    // Set the prototype chain to inherit from `parent`, without calling
    // `parent`'s constructor function.
    ctor.prototype = parent.prototype;
    child.prototype = new ctor();

    // Add prototype properties (instance properties) to the subclass,
    // if supplied.
    if (protoProps) _.extend(child.prototype, protoProps);

    // Add static properties to the constructor function, if supplied.
    if (staticProps) _.extend(child, staticProps);

    // Correctly set child's `prototype.constructor`.
    child.prototype.constructor = child;

    // Set a convenience property in case the parent's prototype is needed later.
    child.__super__ = parent.prototype;

    return child;
  };

  // Helper function to get a URL from a Model or Collection as a property
  // or as a function.
  var getUrl = function(object) {
    if (!(object && object.url)) return null;
    return _.isFunction(object.url) ? object.url() : object.url;
  };

  // Throw an error when a URL is needed, and none is supplied.
  var urlError = function() {
    throw new Error('A "url" property or function must be specified');
  };

  // Wrap an optional error callback with a fallback error event.
  var wrapError = function(onError, model, options) {
    return function(resp) {
      if (onError) {
        onError(model, resp, options);
      } else {
        model.trigger('error', model, resp, options);
      }
    };
  };

  // Helper function to escape a string for HTML rendering.
  var escapeHTML = function(string) {
    return string.replace(/&(?!\w+;|#\d+;|#x[\da-f]+;)/gi, '&amp;').replace(/</g, '&lt;').replace(/>/g, '&gt;').replace(/"/g, '&quot;').replace(/'/g, '&#x27;').replace(/\//g,'&#x2F;');
  };

}).call(this);